The big facts page

203 facts about star forts, all checked

Every fact on this site in one place, each linked to its source. Our build checks each one against the source text; see the sources page. Things that can change carry the date we checked them, and where sources disagree you’ll find each one.

Why star forts?

1 After metal cannonballs came into general use at the end of the 15th century, Italian engineers designed a new kind of defence: the bastioned system. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
2 The bastioned system used a geometric layout of ramparts that got rid of blind spots, with the bastion replacing the medieval tower. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
3 In the 16th century the medieval tower was replaced by the bastion, which eliminated all blind spots. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
4 A bastion is a pentagonal (five-sided) shape that points two faces towards the attacker and joins the curtain walls with two flanks. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
5 The size and shape of bastions were worked out from how far the defenders’ guns could fire. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
6 This gave fortifications a star-shaped plan, with each point being a section of wall facing the attacker. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
7 The ramparts were huge earth banks held up by walls, strong enough to take cannonballs and to carry many cannons. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
8 A bastioned fort’s strength came not from tall walls but from the thickness of the earth piled up behind them. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
9 Unlike medieval high, thick walls, the bastioned system drove defences down into the ground, making them less fragile. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Bastioned fortifications
10 Bastioned fortification was introduced and developed first by Italian and then Dutch engineers from the 16th century onwards. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Bastioned fortifications
11 UNESCO says the arrival of gunpowder led to big changes in military techniques and architecture, seen in “alla moderna” or bastioned fortifications, which spread throughout Europe. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries
12 UNESCO calls the territory of the Republic of Venice “the near-exclusive setting of the genesis of the alla moderna or bastioned system” during the Renaissance. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries
13 English Heritage describes bastions as gun platforms sticking out from the wall, so defenders could fire out across the ditch or at enemies attacking the walls on either side. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
14 English Heritage says bastioned fortification was found first in Italy, at Verona. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
15 The National Park Service says the star-shaped bastion design originated in Italy in the 15th century. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
16 Another National Park Service page says the bastion system was developed by Italians in the 17th century. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
17 The NPS explains the star shape as architecture adapting to technology: black powder weapons needed defences that could stand up to cannon fire and carry cannons of their own. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
18 The “bastion system” is named after the diamond or angle-shaped bastions added to the fort walls. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
19 At Fort McHenry, each point of the star could be seen from the points on either side, and as few as five men could cover all the land around the fort. US National Park Service: The Star Fort (Fort McHenry)
20 The design of polygonal forts with pointed bastions was established in Britain during the Civil Wars of the 1640s. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort Charlotte, history

The parts of a star fort

21 Bastion: a low five-sided work sticking out from the main wall, made of two faces, two flanks and the gorge (the back, often left open). Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Bastion
22 A bastioned front is a layout where the sides protect each other. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Bastion
23 A bastion was called “solid” when it was completely filled with earth from the rampart. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Bastion
24 Ravelin (or demi-lune): a defence in front of the curtain wall, surrounded by ditches. A triangular ravelin usually had two faces meeting at a sharp angle, and often protected the gate. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Demi-lune or ravelin
25 Glacis: a gently sloping bank of earth running from the top of the covered way down to the natural ground in front of the fort. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Glacis
26 Curtain wall: a straight wall between two towers or bastions. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Curtain wall
27 Covered way: a walkway open on the counterscarp side and protected by a parapet. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Covert way
28 Counterscarp: the outer sloping wall of the ditch. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Counterscarp
29 Embrasure: an opening designed for a cannon. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Embrasure
30 Parapet: a wall of stone, wood or earth on the outer edge of a defence. On artillery forts, parapets are lower and thicker than castle battlements, with embrasures for guns. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Parapet
31 Citadel: a fort that commanded a town, often part of the town wall, usually used as an arsenal and barracks. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Citadel
32 At Tilbury, Historic England describes the ravelin as an arrowhead-shaped island in the inner moat, with guns to defend the Landport Gate. Historic England: Tilbury Fort, list entry 1021092
33 At Fort McHenry the NPS describes the ravelin as a triangular structure just outside the fort. US National Park Service: The Bombardment of Fort McHenry, part 1
34 At Tilbury the covered way had an internal firing step, called a banquette. Historic England: Tilbury Fort, list entry 1021092

Vauban

35 Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban lived from 1633 to 1707 and was a military engineer of King Louis XIV. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban
36 Vauban was born in May 1633 in Saint-Léger-de-Foucheret, now called Saint-Léger-Vauban. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
37 Vauban joined the army as a cadet at the age of 17. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
38 Vauban served Louis XIV for 53 years. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
39 At 22, Vauban was given the title “ingénieur ordinaire du roi”, engineer to the king. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
40 Vauban designed a siege method in twelve separate stages. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
41 As well as fortifying towns, Vauban also captured them, and he knew no fortress was impregnable. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
42 Vauban saw a fortress as a deterrent, meant to be used as little as possible. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
43 Louis XIV gave Vauban the job of building the citadel at Lille, known as “the Queen of Citadels”. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
44 In 1673 Vauban persuaded Louis XIV to set up his “pré carré”: a double line of fortified towns on France’s north-eastern border. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
45 From 1678 Vauban was General Commissioner for Fortifications of the Kingdom. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
46 Vauban travelled the equivalent of 4,000 kilometres a year for sieges and building work. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
47 On 14 January 1703 Louis XIV made Vauban a Marshal of France. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
48 Vauban died in Paris on 30 March 1707, aged 74. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
49 In 1808 Vauban’s heart was taken to the Invalides Church in Paris. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
50 From 1653 to 1703 Vauban took part in 48 sieges, restructured 130 strongholds and built about thirty from scratch. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Vauban
51 The Vauban network says he built or developed no less than 165 works. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
52 Vauban’s forts formed what is called an “iron belt” around France. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
53 Vauban refused to write a treatise (a rule book) on fortification, because each site needed its own design. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
54 Vauban gradually made his forts bigger, adding outworks: ravelins and demi-lunes, then hornworks, crownworks and detached forts. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
55 Vauban’s ideas were only described as “three systems” after his death; for him, fitting the land, common sense and experience were what counted. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
56 In the plains of northern France, Vauban used water as a defence, planning to flood the land around a fortress during a siege. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: History of the bastioned fortification
57 Vauban built on the ideas of an earlier engineer, Blaise de Pagan. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Three systems
58 Vauban’s principles of siege war lasted for two centuries. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Three systems
59 Vauban built nine new towns; four are still almost intact: Longwy, Mont-Louis, Mont-Dauphin and Neuf-Brisach. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Bastioned fortifications
60 Vauban designed barracks for soldiers, who until then had often been lodged with local people. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Bastioned fortifications
61 At Briançon in the Alps the land forced Vauban to give up his standard designs. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Bastioned fortifications
62 UNESCO’s Fortifications of Vauban site is made up of 12 groups of buildings and sites along France’s borders. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban
63 The Fortifications of Vauban were added to the World Heritage List in 2008. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban
64 UNESCO says Vauban’s work shows “the peak of classic bastioned fortification”. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban
65 UNESCO says Vauban’s models were used all over the world up to the mid-19th century. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban
66 UNESCO says Vauban’s forms were used as a model for fortresses in the Far East, and his ideas were spread in Russian and Turkish. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Fortifications of Vauban

Neuf-Brisach

67 Neuf-Brisach, on the Alsace plain, is described as “a perfect star” and the culmination of Vauban’s work. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
68 A new stronghold was needed after Brisach, across the Rhine, was lost in 1697. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
69 The king chose the most complete and expensive of Vauban’s plans for Neuf-Brisach. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
70 Building began in 1699, with a canal dug to the Vosges to bring pink sandstone. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
71 Neuf-Brisach is the only example of Vauban’s “third system”. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: glossary, Third system
72 Neuf-Brisach has an octagonal (eight-sided) layout. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
73 The town was divided into 48 blocks around a central parade ground; 34 were for the 4,000 people who lived there. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
74 At Neuf-Brisach the barracks were built against the ramparts to protect the townspeople. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach
75 Neuf-Brisach’s ramparts are freely accessible all year round. Network of Vauban’s Major Sites: Neuf-Brisach · checked 3 Nov 2026

The Venetian Works of Defence

76 UNESCO’s Venetian Works of Defence site has 6 parts in Italy, Croatia and Montenegro, spread over more than 1,000 km. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries
77 The Venetian Works of Defence were added to the World Heritage List in 2017. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries
78 The Stato da Mar forts protected Venice’s sea routes and ports in the Adriatic. UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries

Palmanova

79 Palmanova is known as the “star city” because of its nine-pointed star plan. italia.it: Palmanova
80 Palmanova was founded by the Venetians in 1593, to defend their lands against the Habsburgs. italia.it: Palmanova
81 Palmanova’s own site says it was built to strengthen defences against the Turks and the Habsburgs. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
82 Palmanova’s main designer was General Giulio Savorgnan. italia.it: Palmanova
83 Palmanova has three rings of walls: two built by Venice, with nine bastions and nine ravelins, and an outer ring of nine “lunettes” added by Napoleon in the early 19th century. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
84 italia.it says the third ring was built in 1805 by the French. italia.it: Palmanova
85 Palmanova is described as the only planned town still intact in its nine-pointed star shape. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
86 Palmanova’s central square, Piazza Grande, is hexagonal (six-sided). Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
87 There are three gates into Palmanova. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
88 Palmanova’s walls run for more than four kilometres; the Ring of Fortifications route is 4.3 km. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
89 Tunnels run between Palmanova’s fortifications, letting soldiers move unseen by attackers. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
90 Palmanova was declared a National Monument in 1960. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
91 Palmanova became part of a UNESCO World Heritage site on 9 July 2017. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City
92 Palmanova’s historical re-enactment, held in the first week of September, has over a thousand people in historical dress. Visit Palmanova: The Fortress City

Bourtange

93 In 1580 William of Orange ordered a fort with five bastions to be built on a sandy ridge in the Bourtange marsh. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
94 Fortress Bourtange says the fortress was erected in 1593, commissioned by William Louis of Nassau. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
95 The fort was meant to block the road the Spanish used to supply the city of Groningen. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
96 The road ran over a sandy ridge, called a “tange”. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
97 In the 16th century half of today’s Groningen and Drenthe provinces were covered by vast swamps. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
98 In 1665 Bourtange’s garrison had fallen to just 50 men. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
99 The Bishop of Münster pushed through to Winschoten in 1665 but failed to capture Bourtange. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
100 Bourtange reached its greatest size in 1742, after work from 1739 to 1742. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
101 By 1681 the marsh around Bourtange had been completely dried out by farmers. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
102 Bourtange was closed as a fortress in 1851 and became a farming village. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
103 Bourtange was reconstructed between 1967 and 1992. Fortress Bourtange: History of Bourtange
104 Visit Groningen says William of Orange commissioned the first fortification at Bourtange in 1580. Visit Groningen: Fort Bourtange
105 Bourtange is known as the fort that was never taken. Visit Groningen: Fort Bourtange

Berwick-upon-Tweed

106 In 1558 Mary I sent the engineer Sir Richard Lee to Berwick to replace the medieval walls with bastioned fortifications. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
107 In 1558 Calais had been lost to the French, who urged the Scots to attack England’s northern outpost, Berwick. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
108 Work on Berwick’s new ramparts stopped in 1569. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
109 After Mary I died in 1558, the new fortifications became known as the Elizabethan ramparts. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
110 English Heritage says the ramparts make Berwick one of the most important fortified towns of Europe. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
111 Berwick’s Elizabethan rampart walls stand about 6 metres (20 feet) high, with the earth rampart rising a further 5 metres (16 feet). English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
112 Outside Berwick’s ramparts was a broad, deep ditch, now dry. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
113 Cumberland Bastion is one of the earliest and best-preserved bastions at Berwick. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
114 Berwick’s Powder Magazine, a gunpowder store with its own walled enclosure, was built in 1749 to 1750. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
115 Berwick’s Main Guard had a soldiers’ room, an officers’ room and a cell for drunken soldiers and deserters. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
116 English Heritage calls Berwick’s defences the most complete bastioned town defences in England. English Heritage: Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
117 You can walk the whole circuit of Berwick’s ramparts. English Heritage: Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
118 Some sections of Berwick’s ramparts have steep unguarded drops. English Heritage: Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts
119 A walkway along Berwick’s ramparts was created in 1837. English Heritage: History of Berwick-upon-Tweed Castle and Ramparts

Tilbury Fort

120 In July 1667, during a war with England, the Dutch navy attacked the river Medway and burned the fort at Sheerness. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
121 King Charles II had Tilbury Fort built after the Dutch raid of 1667. English Heritage: Tilbury Fort
122 Sir Bernard de Gomme drew up plans for Tilbury Fort in 1668, and work began in 1670. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
123 Building Tilbury took almost 15 years, on wet marshland; by 1685 it was substantially complete. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
124 Tilbury Fort is five-sided, but has four bastions: the Thames tides stopped a fifth from being built out into the water. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
125 Tilbury has two deep moats, one inside the other, filled from the river. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
126 Tilbury has two gates: the Water Gate from the river and the Landport Gate from the marsh. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
127 Tilbury’s barracks housed around 186 soldiers. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
128 In 1691 Tilbury had 272 heavy guns. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
129 In 1757 almost 8,500 barrels of gunpowder were stored at Tilbury, more than anywhere else in Britain. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
130 English Heritage calls Tilbury England’s best example of a 17th-century bastioned fortress. English Heritage: Tilbury Fort
131 Historic England says Tilbury’s bastions and outworks are “principally a Dutch design”, extremely rare in England. Historic England: Tilbury Fort, list entry 1021092
132 Tilbury’s defences were never tested by any enemy. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
133 Elizabeth I rallied her army near Tilbury in 1588, while waiting for the Spanish Armada. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
134 When the Spanish Armada was expected in 1588, an Italian engineer, Federigo Gianibelli, designed earth-and-timber defences with angles for crossfire around the Tudor blockhouse. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
135 Tilbury began as a D-shaped Tudor gun tower, built in 1539 to 1540 under Henry VIII. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort
136 Prisoners were held at Tilbury after the Jacobite Rising of 1745. English Heritage: Tilbury Fort
137 In 1916 Tilbury’s guns helped shoot down a raiding Zeppelin. English Heritage: Tilbury Fort
138 The Army finally left Tilbury Fort in 1950. English Heritage: History of Tilbury Fort

Fort George

139 Historic Environment Scotland calls Fort George the finest example of 18th-century military engineering anywhere in the British Isles. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
140 Fort George never fired a shot in anger. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
141 Fort George was built to keep down the Jacobites after the Battle of Culloden, and is named after George II. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
142 Lieutenant-General William Skinner designed Fort George and was its first governor. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
143 Fort George’s strongest defences face the land, where a Jacobite attack was expected. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
144 Fort George had room for a 1,600-strong infantry garrison and more than 80 guns. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
145 Fort George’s magazine held 2,672 barrels of gunpowder. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
146 Today Fort George would cost nearly £1 billion to build and equip. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history
147 Fort George took 22 years to finish, by which time the Jacobite threat had died down. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George
148 Fort George was built by the Adam family of architects. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George
149 Fort George’s main rampart is more than 1 km long and encloses an area the size of five football pitches. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George
150 Fort George has a dog cemetery, one of only two in Scotland, for regimental mascots and officers’ pets. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George
151 From Fort George you can sometimes see dolphins off the point. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George
152 Fort George is still an army base, home of the Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort George, history · checked 3 Nov 2026

Fort Charlotte

153 Fort Charlotte in Lerwick, Shetland, is roughly pentagonal, with a battery for 12 guns facing Bressay Sound. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort Charlotte, history
154 In 1673 the Dutch landed and burned Fort Charlotte’s abandoned barrack block. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort Charlotte, history
155 The fort was re-established in 1781 and named after Queen Charlotte, wife of George III. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort Charlotte, history
156 Fort Charlotte’s guns were removed in 1855; it later served as a jail, courthouse and coastguard station. Historic Environment Scotland: Fort Charlotte, history

Fort McHenry

157 Fort McHenry in Baltimore is shaped like a five-pointed star. US National Park Service: The Star Fort (Fort McHenry)
158 One NPS page says Fort McHenry was built between 1799 and 1802. US National Park Service: The Star Fort (Fort McHenry)
159 Another NPS page says building began in 1798 and the fort was completed in 1803. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
160 Fort McHenry grew from a small earth star fort called Fort Whetstone, built during the American Revolution. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
161 Fort McHenry is named after James McHenry, George Washington’s Secretary of War. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
162 In September 1814 British ships bombarded Fort McHenry for twenty-five hours, but the defenders held. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
163 Francis Scott Key watched the bombardment and wrote the poem that became “The Star-Spangled Banner”. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
164 “The Star-Spangled Banner” became the national anthem of the United States in 1931. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
165 The Star Fort had five bastions and, with three guns in the ravelin, 23 guns in all. US National Park Service: The Bombardment of Fort McHenry, part 1
166 Major George Armistead had a 30 by 42 foot garrison flag raised over the fort. US National Park Service: The Bombardment of Fort McHenry, part 1
167 Fort McHenry’s walls and buildings were made of brick. US National Park Service: The Star Fort (Fort McHenry)
168 In the First World War a 3,000-bed hospital was built around Fort McHenry. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry
169 Fort McHenry is the only National Park Service site called a “Historic Shrine”. US National Park Service: History of Fort McHenry

Castillo de San Marcos

170 Building of Castillo de San Marcos in St Augustine, Florida, began in 1672. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
171 Castillo de San Marcos is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos National Monument
172 The NPS calls the Castillo a prime example of the Vauban style of fortification. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
173 The Castillo is one of only two forts in the world built of coquina, a limestone made of shells; the other is Fort Matanzas. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
174 Cannonballs fired at the coquina walls burrowed in and stuck, instead of shattering the wall. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
175 “Coquina” is Spanish for “tiny shell”. US National Park Service: Coquina, the rock that saved St Augustine
176 Under the Spanish the Castillo had four bastions and walls 30 feet high. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
177 One NPS page gives the walls as 14 feet thick. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
178 Another NPS page says the walls average 12 feet (3.7 m) thick, and up to 19 feet (5.8 m) on the ocean side. US National Park Service: Coquina, the rock that saved St Augustine
179 The first phase of building the Castillo was finished in 1695. US National Park Service: Coquina, the rock that saved St Augustine
180 After an English attack in 1702, the Castillo was the only structure in St Augustine to survive the fire. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
181 In 1740 General Oglethorpe bombarded the Castillo for 27 days, and the walls held. US National Park Service: Coquina, the rock that saved St Augustine
182 During an English siege the Castillo once sheltered over 1,500 people for 51 days. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction
183 Castillo de San Marcos was never captured in battle. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos (article)
184 The British called it Fort St Mark, the US Army called it Fort Marion from 1825, and its Spanish name returned in 1942. US National Park Service: Castillo de San Marcos, construction

Goryokaku

185 Goryokaku Fort in Hakodate, Japan, was designed by Takeda Ayasaburo and influenced by Vauban. Japan National Tourism Organization: Goryokaku Fort
186 Goryokaku was the first Western-style fort in Japan, completed in 1864. Japan National Tourism Organization: Goryokaku Fort
187 The Japan National Tourism Organization says the final battle of the Boshin War was fought at Goryokaku in 1869. Japan National Tourism Organization: Goryokaku Fort
188 Visit Hokkaido calls it the 1868 Battle of Hakodate. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
189 Goryokaku’s grounds became a public park in 1914. Japan National Tourism Organization: Goryokaku Fort
190 The Hakodate Magistrate’s Office in the middle of the fort was destroyed in 1871 and reconstructed, reopening in 2010. Japan National Tourism Organization: Goryokaku Fort
191 Goryokaku covers about 125,500 square metres and is surrounded by a moat up to 30 metres wide and 5 metres deep. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
192 Visit Hokkaido says Goryokaku was modelled on 16th-century European citadels. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
193 Goryokaku is famous for its cherry blossom; Visit Hokkaido says 1,600 cherry trees frame the fort. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
194 The best view of the star shape is from Goryokaku Tower. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
195 Visit Hokkaido says the text on its Goryokaku page includes machine translations. Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort
196 Entry to the Goryokaku park is free (the Magistrate’s Office charges an admission fee). Visit Hokkaido: Goryokaku Fort · checked 3 Nov 2026

The national curriculum in England

197 At KS2 the national curriculum includes a local history study, which can be a site from a period beyond 1066 that is significant in the locality. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
198 KS2 also includes a study of an aspect or theme in British history that goes beyond 1066. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
199 At KS3 pupils study the development of Church, state and society in Britain 1509 to 1745. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
200 The KS3 examples include the civil wars throughout Britain, the Restoration and the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
201 The KS3 examples include the Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
202 Pupils should discern how and why contrasting arguments and interpretations of the past have been constructed. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)
203 The curriculum names concepts such as continuity and change, cause and consequence, similarity, difference and significance. Department for Education: National curriculum in England, history programmes of study (GOV.UK)